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Learner Motivation and Developing Self-esteem

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A common question that is asked by student teachers is: ‘How can you get school students motivated about…?’ It would be good if there was a simple answer, but there is not.
We probably have impressions about the processes of motivation, about what energises us and what does not. But what causes this flow and direction of energy? It is due to instincts, needs, incentives, fears or social pressures?

4.2 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Various definitions of motivation abound, such as ‘motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs and maintains ‘behaviour’ (Woolfolk 2006, p. 336). Yet this does not tell us very much. A fascinating question is what causes a person to initiate a particular action. A useful dichotonomy to discuss this is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation without any apparent external reward – for example, the motivation for learning comes entirely from performing a particular task. Students will be motivated to undertake a certain task because of some personal factors – these may include needs, interest, curiosity and enjoyment. The activity in itself is the reward in these circumstances.
Intrinsic motivation can be capitalized on by using innovative teaching. For example, if a teacher can create puzzling questions, dilemmas and novel situations, and if this in turn puzzles the students in a class, they are likely to be intrinsically motivated to find solutions (see Figure 4.1)
Not all students will be intrinsically motivated about particular puzzles or dilemmas. Those students who are strongly motivated to work on challenging tasks, often on their own, are likely to be students who are confident about their own self-worth and who have developed a strong interest in a particular subject or schooling in general. Different students will find different task/ activities that will elicit particular forms of intrinsic motivation.
Research evidence about classrooms indicates that intrinsic motivation is only successful in certain situations for particular students (Borich & Tombari 1997). Extrinsic motivation also needs to be used to simulate students.

FIGURE 4.1 Strategies to Encourage intrinsic motivation
• Present a novel situation of the class.
• Use an anecdote to engage students in a personal response.
• Use challenging questions.
• Provide contradictory information about a topic.
• Produce unfamiliar examples.
• Use case study accounts.

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation is experienced by students when they receive s reward, or avoid punishment, on in some other way unconnected with the task earn approval for particular behavior. In technical terms we can refer to reinforcement, which is the external stimulus that follows as a result of a certain response. If it is a positive reinforce then the stimulus or event result in improved learning. Examples of primary reinforcers include those items/ events that satisfy our basic physiological needs, such as food and drink. Secondary reinforcers are behaviours or events associated with primary reinforcers such as the supportive/ friendly manner of persons giving out the items of food. It is evident that a lot of teacher behaviours are related to secondary reinforcement such as teachers’ gestures and non-verbal behaviour. Primary reinforcers are also used by teachers, especially in earlier grades, and include items such as lollies, drinks and play-toys.
A problem for teachers is that we can never be certain which reinforcers will motivate particular students. Further, students’ preferences for certain reinforcers can change over time. Above all, a teacher needs to have reflected carefully on his/ her attitudes towards the use of acceptable and unacceptable types of external reinforcers. For example, do you consider that giving a student free reading time is a better reinforce than releasing a student early to go to lunch? Do you place a high or a low value on consumable rewards?
It is evident that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are used in classroom learning. The perceptive teacher will always demonstrate why he/she is using external motivation and his can encourage students to become more confident and independent and hence more likely in the long term to become intrinsically motivated.
Research evidence provides conflicting advice on the use of intrinsic motivation. Deci, Koestener and Ryan (2001) in a major meta-analysis study conclude that tangible extrinsic rewards (for example, gold stars, best-student awards, honour rolls) ‘do significantly and substantially undermine intrinsic motivation’ (p. 2). They contend that these forms of motivation attempt to control behaviour and lead to a perception by students of reduced opportunities for self-determination.
By contrast, Cameron (2001), also using a major meta-analysis study, concludes that the negative effects for extrinsic reward are minimal and can easily be prevented in applied school settings. She argues for the use of rewards to ‘shape successful performance and to recognise student accomplishment’ (p. 40)
Hidi and Harackiewicz (2000) take a similar atance to Cameron (2001) when they argue that ‘situational interest’ (external rewards) can have long-term benefits. They conclude that those who argue against external rewards have been over-reacting to behaviourism, and as a consequence ‘have ended up denying the importance of external influences that may be necessary for all students to get a decent, if not equal change to achieve’ (p. 169).
Vansteenhiste, Lens and Deci (2006) distinguish between extrinsic motivation which is ‘autonomous’ and that which ‘controlled’.
Autonomous motivation involves the experience of volition and choice. In these situations the teacher allows opportunities for self-initiation and choice.
Controlled motivation involves the experience of being pressured or coerced. In these situations, the teacher pressures students to think, act or feel in certain ways.
According to Vansteenhiste, Lens and Deci (2006), the more autonomy-supportive the classroom context, the more it maintains or enhances intrinsic motivation.
Your trun • When you are observing in classrooms, do you see teachers using mainly intrinsic or extrinsic motivation? Which ones are most effective? How can you tell?
• Which types of motivation do you intend to use? Why?

4.3 SELF-ESTEEM
A number of educators assert that self-esteem is one of the most basic of human needs and that it is a powerful factor in classroom behaviour.
Maslow (1954) considered that motivation can be grouped into a hierarchy of needs, and self-esteem is included in this listing (see Figure 4.2). Our low-level needs are our physical needs (food and safety). These needs are fundamental in determining our behaviour, but once they have been met we are stimulated to fulfil higher level needs, namely social needs. Our social needs revolve around self-esteem (being special and different) and belongingness (knowing that others are aware of us and want to be a part of our group).
Once our social needs are more less satisfied we will develop our intellectual needs in terms of needing to know and understand. Beyond this in the hierarchy are aesthetic appreciation needs and, finally, self-actualisation. The highest need, self-actualisation, involves striving for the highest level of personal potential.
Maslow maintains that the four lower level needs (survival, safety, belonging and self-esteem) are needs that individuals will strive to satisfy. Striving for the three higher needs (intellectual achievement, aesthetic needs and self-actualisation) will only occur if a reasonable level of satisfaction has been attained with the four lower levels.
There are important implications here for teachers. Clearly, students who are on a deficient diet at home and come to school hungry will not be motivated by needs beyond the physiological ones. Students who feel lonely and insecure may be highly to satisfy belongingness needs, rather